Defaunation affects Astrocaryum gratum (Arecales: Arecaceae) seed survivorship in a sub-montane tropical forest / La defaunación afecta la supervivencia de semillas Astrocaryum Gratum (Arecales: Arecaceae) en un bosque tropical sub-montano

Animal-plant interactions in Neotropical forests are complex processes. Within these processes, mid-to large-sized mammals consume fruits and seeds from several species; however, because of their size these mammals are overhunted, resulting in defaunated forests. Our objective was to evaluate and compare seed removal and survivorship in a forest with no hunting, a forest with moderate or reduced hunting, and a forest with higher hunting pressure. We examined the interaction between Astrocaryum gratum and white lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari) to tease apart the defaunation process. To isolate and evaluate mammal seed removal rates and to identify the causes of mortality on A.gratum, under the three different hunting pressures forests, we used exclosures in each one. In four different forest-patches for each forest, we positioned a block-treatment consisting of three exclosures (total exclusion, peccary exclusion, and control), randomly distributed 5m apart and the block-treatments spaced 50-75m apart from one another. We established 15 treatments in total for each patch (5 blocks per patch). There were 20 blocks within each forest type. For total exclusion, all vertebrates were excluded using galvanized wire mesh exclosures. The second, the peccary exclusion, was designed to stop peccaries from entering treatment units, providing access only to small vertebrates; larger mammals were able to access the treatment unit by reaching over the sides and the open top; finally, the Control allowed full access for all mammals. Fresh A. gratum fruits were collected from the forest floor under different adult trees throughout the study area. In each exclosure treatment, twenty A.gratum seeds were placed, and their removal was recorded. In total, 3 600 seeds were analyzed. Seed survival was lower in unhunted forest compared to areas with moderate hunting and forest with a higher hunt pressure, supporting the hypothesis of the importance of mammals in seed removal. From the initial 400 seeds left for each control exclosure in each type of forest, there was a significant difference between the seed removal; 1.75% seeds in the unhunted forest remained; 43.5% in the moderately hunted forest, and 48.5% in hunted forest. The main cause of seed mortality was white lipped peccaries; while in the forests without them, the main removal was caused by rodents and a higher insect infection was observed in the heavily hunted forest. Our results indicated that defaunation affects seed survivorship. Rev. Biol. Trop. 63 (1): 57-67. Epub 2015 March 01.

Las relaciones planta-animal en bosques neotropicales son procesos complejos; los mamíferos medianos y grandes consumen frutos y semillas de varias especies, sin embargo, por su tamaño, la caza excesiva de estas especies puede resultar en bosques defaunados. Nuestro objetivo fue evaluar y comparar la remoción y sobrevivencia de semillas en un bosque sin caza, un bosque con caza moderada, y un bosque con mayor presión de caza. Para estudiar el proceso de defaunación, se examinó la interacción entre la palmera Astrocaryum gratum y el pecarí de labios blancos (Tayassu pecari). Para aislar y evaluar las tasas de remoción de semillas de A. gratum por mamíferos y para identificar las causas su mortalidad, bajo diferentes presiones de caza, se utilizó tratamientos de exclusiones para cada bosque; en cuatro parches de bosque distintos, colocamos tratamientos en bloques, compuesto por tres tipos de exclusiones (exclusión total, exclusión de pecarís y control). Distribuidos a 5m de distancia entre ellos y los bloques separados por 50-75m. Establecimos 15 tratamientos en total para cada parche de bosque (5 bloques por parche), con 20 bloques dentro de cada tipo de bosque. Utilizando malla de alambre galvanizado, todos los vertebrados fueron excluidos (exclusión total). El segundo tratamiento fue la exclusión de pecarí. Estas fueron diseñadas para excluir pecarís, permitiendo el acceso sólo a pequeños vertebrados; los mamíferos grandes eran capaces de acceder a estas exclusiones por la parte superior abierta. Por último, el control permite el pleno acceso de todos los mamíferos. De forma oportunista, debajo de diferentes árboles adultos de A. gratum se recogieron frutas frescas. En cada tratamiento de exclusión, se colocaron veinte semillas de A. gratum, y su remoción fue registrada. En total, se analizaron 3 600 semillas. La supervivencia de semillas fue menor en el bosque sin caza comparado con las áreas con caza moderada y bosques con una presión de caza mayor, que apoya la hipótesis de la importancia de los mamíferos en la remoción de semillas. De las 400 semillas iniciales en el "control" de cada uno de los tipos de bosques, hubo una diferencia significativa entre la remoción de semillas; con 1.75% de supervivencia en el bosque sin caza; 43.5% en bosque de caza moderada, y 48.5% en bosque con caza. La causa principal de la mortalidad de semillas fue pecaríes de labio blanco, mientras que en los bosques sin ellos, la eliminación principal fue causada por roedores y en el bosque de alta caza, se registró una la mayor infección de insectos. Los resultados indican que la defaunación afecta a supervivencia de semillas.

Pan-biogeografia dos ungulados viventes (Mammalia: Eutheria) da região Neotropical, da Zona de Transição Sul-americana e região Andina: aspectos históricos e conservacionistas / Panbiogeography of living ungulates (Mammalia: Perissodactyla and Cetartiodactyla) of the Neotropical region, the South American Transition Zone and Andean region: historical and conservationist aspects

Os ungulados viventes (Cetartiodactyla e Perissodactyla), nas regiões estudadas, são representados por 11 gêneros e 24 espécies. O presente estudo propõe reconhecer os padrões de distribuição destas espécies, a partir da aplicação do método pan-biogeográfico de análise de traços. Este método auxilia no entendimento a priori dos padrões congruentes de distribuição e numa compreensão de padrões e processos de diferenciação geográfica no tempo e no espaço, reconstruindo a biogeografia de táxons. Em relação a aspectos conservacionistas, o método foi aplicado na identificação de áreas prioritárias para conservação. A aplicação do método consiste basicamente na marcação das localidades de ocorrência dos diferentes táxons em mapas, sendo estas localidades conectadas por intermédio de linhas seguindo um critério de mínima distância, resultando nos chamados traços individuais que foram plotados nos mapas de biomas da América Central e do Sul do programa ArcView GIS 3.2. A superposição destes traços individuais define um traço generalizado, sugerindo uma história comum, ou seja, a preexistência de uma biota ancestral subsequentemente fragmentada por eventos vicariantes. A interseção de dois ou mais traços generalizados corresponde a um nó biogeográfico, que representa áreas compostas e complexas, nas quais se agrupam distintas histórias biogeográficas. Para a análise pan-biogeográfica foi utilizado o software ArcView GIS 3.2 e a extensão Trazos 2004. A partir da superposição dos 24 traços individuais, foram reconhecidos cinco traços generalizados (TGs): TG1, Mesoamericano/Chocó, composto por Mazama pandora, M. temama e Tapirus bairdii; TG2, Andes do Norte (Mazama rufina, Pudu mephistophiles e Tapirus pinchaque); TG 3, Andes Centrais (Hippocamelus antisensis, Lama guanicoe, Mazama chunyi e Vicugna vicugna) ; TG4, Patagônia chilena (Hippocamelus bisulcus e Pudu puda).; TG5, Chaco/Centro oeste do Brasil (Blastocerus dichotomus, Catagonus wagneri e Ozotocerus bezoarticus ...

The living ungulates (Cetartiodactyla and Perissodactyla) are represented in the studied regions by 11 genera and 24 species. This study proposes to recognize the distribution patterns of these species, using the panbiogeographical method of track analysis. This method is a useful tool in a priori understanding of the congruent distribution patterns and in the knowledge of patterns and processes of geographical differentiation in time and space, reconstructing the biogeography of taxa. Regarding conservationist approaches, it was applied in order to identify priority conservation areas. The panbiogeographical method consists basically of plotting locality records of different taxa on maps and connecting them using lines following a criterion of minimum distance, resulting in the so-called individual tracks, which were plotted on maps of biomes of Central America and South America from the ArcView GIS 3.2. The individual tracks are superimposed and the coincidence of them corresponds to generalized tracks, indicating a common history, that is, the existence of an ancestral biota widespread in the past and later fragmented by vicariant events. The intersection of two or more generalized tracks corresponds to a biogeographic node, which represents composite and complex areas, implying that different ancestral biotas interrelated, possibly in different geologic times. The analysis was carried out with the aid of the software ArcView v3.2 and the Trazos2004 extension. From the overlapping of the 24 individual tracks, five generalized tracks (GTs) were recognized: GT1, Mesoamerican/Chocó, composed by Mazama pandora, M. temama and Tapirus bairdii; GT2, Northern Andes (Mazama rufina, Pudu mephistophiles and Tapirus pinchaque); GT 3, Central Andes (Hippocamelus antisensis, Lama guanicoe, Mazama chunyi and Vicugna vicugna); GT4, Chilean Patagonia (Hippocamelus bisulcus and Pudu puda); GT5, Chaco/Center-West Brazil (Blastocerus dichotomus, Catagonus wagneri ...

Fate of native and introduced seeds consumed by captive white-lipped and collared peccaries (Tayassu pecari, Link 1795 and Pecari tajacu, Linnaeus 1758) in the Atlantic rainforest, Brazil / Destino das sementes consumidas por queixadas e catetos (Tayassu pecari e Pecari tajacu) na Mata Atlântica, Brasil

We studied the role of white-lipped and collared peccaries (Tayassu pecari and Pecari tajacu) as seed predators and dispersers in the Atlantic rainforest of Brazil. The Atlantic rainforest ecosystem is highly threatened and has experienced dramatic declines in its populations of large mammals. Local extinctions can disrupt essential plant-animal interactions such as seed dispersion and seed predation. We tracked seeds from time of consumption to germination to assess the direct impact peccaries have on seed survival. We offered fruits of 20 species found in the Atlantic rainforest to the peccaries. Seeds were categorised as intact, scarified, ingested or defecated, and germination tests were performed. The overall impact by both peccary species was similar. Seeds were sometime scarified by mastication, always with fatal consequences. Most seeds that were consumed were destroyed during ingestion and digestion. Only small seeds (<10 mm) were found in the feces and germination tests suggest a positive effect from the passage through the guts. Peccaries clearly have a double role as both seed predators and as small seeds dispersers, which is a specialised role within the granivore/frugivore community of the Atlantic rainforest.

O papel dos porcos-do-mato, cateto (Pecari tajacu) e queixada (Tayassu pecari), como predadores e dispersores de sementes foram estudados no contexto da Mata Atlântica. Neste ecossistema extremamente ameaçado, as populações de grande mamíferos vêm diminuindo drasticamente. A extinção local de algumas dessas espécies pode modificar as interações plantas-animais como a dispersão e a predação de sementes. Sementes de 20 espécies de plantas lenhosas da Mata Atlântica foram acompanhadas desde a ingestão até a germinação para avaliar o impacto direto que queixadas e catetos têm sobre a sobrevivência destas sementes. As sementes foram categorizadas em: ignoradas, escarificadas (danos mecânicos), engolidas ou defecadas. Também foram realizados testes de germinação. O impacto das duas espécies de foi similar. Às vezes, as sementes foram escarificadas por mastigação, com consequências letais. A maioria das sementes consumidas foi destruída durante a ingestão e digestão. Somente sementes pequenas (<10 mm) foram defecadas. Os testes de germinação sugerem um impacto positivo nas sementes que passaram pelo trato digestivo. Os porcos desempenham claramente um papel duplo: predadores de sementes e dispersores de sementes pequenas, um papel especializado dentro da communidade de frugívoros/granívoros na Mata Atlântica.

Chromosomal evolution and phylogenetic analyses in Tayassu pecari and Pecari tajacu (Tayassuidae): tales from constitutive heterochromatin.

The mammalian family Tayassuidae (peccaries) is confined to the New World and comprises three recognized extant species, white-lipped (Tayassu pecari), collared (Pecari tajacu) and chacoan (Catagonus wagneri) peccaries, which exhibit distinct morphological and chromosomal features. The phylogenetic relationships among the tayassuids are unclear and have instigated debate over the palaeontological, cytogenetic and molecular aspects. Constitutive heterochromatin analysis can be used in understanding the phylogenetic relationships between related species. Here we describe, for the first time, the constitutive heterochromatin (C-positive heterochromatin) of two tayassuid species, Tayassu pecari and Pecari tajacu. We demonstrate that in situ restriction endonuclease digestion with sequential C-banding could be a complementary tool in the study of constitutive heterochromatin heterogeneity in chromosomes of the Tayassuidae. Our characterization of peccary chromosomes suggests that the Pecari tajacu autosomal karyotype is more primitive and has accumulated great diversity in its constitutive heterochromatin. This idea is supported by several other studies that analysed nuclear and mitochondrial sequences of the living peccary species. Finally, the tayassuid X chromosome primitive form seems to be the one of Tayassu pecari.